
;rican history 



January J, J900 — December 31, J901 



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BY 

H. W. CALDWELL 

Professor of American History, University of Nebraska 



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Published by th* 

State of Nebraska 

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 

LINCOLN 
J 902 



American History 

January 1, 1900— December 31, 1901 



By 



B . W. CALDWELL 

Professor of American History 
University of Nebraska 



Published by the 



STATE OF NEBRASKA 

DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
LINCOLN 
1902 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



I3LA1R. NBBR 

Danish Lutli. Publ. House 

1902 



OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY. 

January I, 1900— Decembir 31, 1901. 

A. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 

I. POLITICAL. 

1. Conditions — January i, iuoo. 

2. Steamship subsidy. 

3. Elections. 

4. The Negro Question. 

5. The Tariff. 

6. Census — reapportionment. 

II. INDUSTRIAL. 

1. Monetary. 

2. Trusts. 

3. Railroads. 

4. Prosperity. 

5. American commerce. 
■6. Strikes. 

7. Expositions. 

8. Oklahoma. 

9. Oil fields. 

III. RELIGIOUS AND MORAL. 

1. Church conventions. 

2. Heresy — church trials. 

3. Lawlessness. 

4. Corruption. 

IV. SCIENTIFIC. 

1. Polar expeditions. 

2. Electrical development. 

3. Science and disease. 

V. EDUCATIONAL. 

1. Endowments. 

2. Freedom teaching. 

3. National universities. 

4. Traveling libraries. 

VI. REFORM MOVEMENTS. 

1. Direct primaries. 

2. Election of Senators. 

3. Municipal reform. 

4. Temperance movements. 

/II. MILITARY. 

1. Army and Navy. 

■2. Schley Court of Inquiry. 

3. Alger — vindication. 



VIII. NECROLOGY. 

1. Sherman. 

2. Harrison. 

3. McKinley. 

B. COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES. 

I. IN PACIFIC. 

1. Alaska. 

2. Guam. 

3. Samoa. 

4. Hawaii. 

5. Philippines. 

II. IN ATLANTIC. 

1. Porto Rico. 

2. Cuba. 

3. Danish West Indies. 

C. FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 

I. The Hague Conference. 

II. The Boers, American attitude. 

III. Isthmian Canal. 

IV. The East, and America. 
V. The Monroe Doctrine. 

VI. Pan-American Congress. 



DATES AND EVENTS. 

December 6, 1899— Gold standard bill introduced 
December 18, 1890— Gold standard bill passes House, 100- -150. 
January 2, 1900— Goebel contest in Kentucky begun. Secretary 
Hay secures "Open Door" policy in China. 

January 4, 1900-Senate begins discussion of gold standard bill. 
January 6. 1900.— Testimony begun on case of Senator Uark, 

January 9. 1900— Senator Beveridge's (Ind.) speech for reten- 
tion of Philippines. v^-u r,i C +r.tn 
January 10, 1900— Secretary Gage on sale of New York Custom 

H ° l J S a e nuary II, 1900— Senator Pettigrew attacks President's Philip- 

Pine ja P n ua C r y y 16, 1900-Senate ratines treaty for division of Samoa. 
January 18, 1900-Morgan reports favorably to Nicaragua canal. 
January 20, 1000— Report against Polygamist Roberts 
January 2 3) IQOO-Report against right of Quay to seat m Senate 
January 24, 1900-Senator Pettigrew attacks treaty with Sultan 

° f January 30, 1900-General Wood announces his Cuban cabinet. 
January 30. 1900-Governor Goebel (of Kentucky) shot. 
February^ 3. 1900— Hague Conference treaty ratified. 
February 5, 1900— Hay-Pauncefote treaty signed 
February 16, igoo-House debate begins on bill for government 

° f February i 9> 1900-Senate debate begins on bill for government 

of Hawaii. . . , 

February 10. 1900 — Armv bill introduced. 
February 23, icjoo-Anti-Imperial Conference (Phil.) condemns 

Phili F PP bnia?y 1 28 y - 1900-Porto Rican tariff bill passes House, 17X-I&L 
March 1, 1900— Hawaiian bill passes Senate. 
March 9, 1900-Eugene Debs nominated for President by Social 

Democrats. , ..„ . , 

March 14. 1900— Gold standard bill signed 
March 20, 1900— Debate on Loud postal bill begun. 
March 24, 1900.— New Carnegie company organized. capital 

$l6l M?rch°'26, 1900-Davis (Rep. Minn.) advocates free trade with 

P ° r Ma?ch '27. lOOO.-Foraker (Rep. Ohio) advocates 15 per cent 

^Varcl^fl^Vote to impose the 13 per cent duty-Senate 

33-I April 2. 1900.— Porto Rican tariff and government bill passes the 

Senate 40-31- ..,.,,. , 

\vr\\ 10. 1000— Hawaiian bill in conference. 

April 10 1900-Senator Clark's seat in Senate declared vacant. 

April 12, 1900— Porto Rican bill signed 

April 12 lOoo^Senate refuses to consider Nicaragua bill, 33-15; 

April 13, 1900-House votes to submit amendment, peopie elect 

senators, 240-1,5. 



April 17, 1900 — Senator Hoar (Rep. Mass.) criticises Philippine 
policy. 

April 24, 1900 — Quay refused seat in Senate, 33~32. 
May 2, 1900 — Nicaragua canal bill passes House, 225-35. 
May 10, 1900 — Populists nominate Bryan and Towne. 
May 21, 1900 — Senate refuses to consider Nicaragua canal bill, 
28-21. 

May 21, 1900 — Neely-Rathbone postal scandal — Cuba. 
May 21, 1900 — United States Supreme Court no jurisdiction in 
Kentucky election case. 

June 5, 1900 — Anti-trust bill before judiciary committee. 
June 17, 1900 — Bombardment of Taku, China. 
June 18, 1900 — United States troops ordered to China. 
June 19, 1900 — Attack by Boxers on foreign legations, Peking. 
June 23, 1900 — Methodist church abolishes time limit on pastors. 
June 22, 1900 — Presbyterian church refers revision of creed to 
committee. 

June 30, 1900 — Surplus treasury revenue for year, $80,000,000. 
July 6, 1900 — Bryan and Stevenson nominated by Democrats. 
July 10, 1900 — Allies in China, 21,304 soldiers. 
July 14, 1900 — Allies capture Tientsin, China. 
August 8, 1900 — Bryan notified of nomination — Indianapolis. 
August 16, 1900 — Liberty Congress declares for Bryan. 
August 28, 1900 — Allies enter forbidden part of city of Peking. 
September 4, 1900 — Peace commission appointed by China. 
Sentember 15, 1900 — Election for Cuban Constitutional Conven- 
tion, Nationalists win. 

September 17, 1900 — Coal miners strike. 

October ', 1900— v_,cal miners' strike settled; advance of 10 per 
cent in wages. 

October 12, 1900 — Judge Gray appointed on International Arbi- 
tration Board. 

November 2, 1900 — Roosevelt delivered 673 speeches, traveled 21,- 
209 miles during campaign. 

November 5, 1900 — Cuban Constitutional convention organizes. 
November 6, 1900 — Election — McKinley 292 votes, Bryan 155. 
November 7, 1900 — Treaty for two additional islands, Philippines, 
$100,000. 

November 15, 1900 — Censorship on messages from Manila ends. 
December 3, i9oo — Congress meets. 

December 3, 1900 — Army reorganization bill introduced. 
December 4, 1900 — Isthmian canal commission reports for Nic- 
aragua. 

December 4, 1900 — Ship subsidy bill taken up in Senate. 
December 5, 1900 — Hay-Pauncefote treaty considered in Senate. 
December 6, 1900 — Army reorganization bill passes House; vote 
on the "canteen clause," 159-51. 

December 11, 1900 — Debate begins on reduction of war tax. 
December tj, 1900 — Davis amendment to Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 

65-I7- 

December 17, 1900 — Argument on Porto Rican and Philippine tar- 
iffs begun before t^e Supreme Court. 

December 18, 1900 — Investigation of hazing at West Point begun 
by Congress. 

December 20, 1900 — Hay-Pauncefote treaty, as amended, ratified 
55-i8. 

December 22, 1900 — "Ident cal" note signed by powers. China. 

January 7, 1901 — Reapportionment bill before congress. 

January 8, 1901 — Senate debates army "canteen," 




WILLIAM MCKIXLEY. 



January 8, 1901 — Reapportionment bill passes: pro ides for 386 
members in house. 

January iS, 1901 — Army reorganization l>ill passes senat 

January 18, nnn Amended "canteen" clause .stricken out; k (m s 
to conference committee. 

January 22, 1901 — Resolutions on death of Queen Victoria. 

January 23, 1901 — Ship subsidy bill debate. 

January 25, 1901 — Taft commission reports on Philippines. 

January 28, 1901 — Towne speaks in Senate for Filipino self-gov- 
ernment. 

January 31, 1901 — Army bill goes to President: "canteen" forbid- 
den. 

February 2, 1901 — Army bill signed. 

February 5, 1901 — Mrs. Carrie Nation wrecks saloon. 

February 12, 1901 — -Michigan supreme court decides public fran- 
chises taxable. 

February 16, 1901 — Russian retaliatory tariff against the United 
States. 

February 25, 1901 — Piatt provisions in regard to Cuban relations 
to United States adopted, 43-20. 

February 27, 1901. — Spooner amendment regarding Philippines 
adopted, 45-27. 

March 1, 1901 — Spooner amendment regarding Philippines adopt- 
ed in House, 159-134. 

March 4, 1901 — River and harbor bill failed in Senate. Senator 
Carter talked it to death. 

March II, 1901 — Great Britain refuses to accept modified Hay- 
Pauncefote treaty. 

March 13, 1901 — Carnegie offers New York City $5,200,000 for 
libraries. 

March 22,, 1901 — Aguinaldo captured by Funston. 

April 12, 1901 — Cuban Constitutional Convention refuses to ac- 
cept Piatt resolutions, 18-10. 

April 12, 1901 — United States proposes to nations to reduce the 
Chinese indemnity by one-half. 

April 27, 1901 — Cuban committee's final interview with President 
McKiniey. 

May 3, 1901. — Jacksonville fire — 148 blocks burned; $10,000,000 
loss. 

May 7, 1901 — Strike on Albany street railroad. 

May 9, 1901 — Great excitement in Wall Street over Northern 
Pacific railroad. 

May 20, 1901 — Pan-American exposition opens. 

May 20, 1901 — Machinists strike. 

May 22, 1901 — Alabama constitutional convention meets. 

May 23, Virginia constitutional convention elected. 

May 25, 1901 — South Carolina senators resign. Later withdraw 
resignations. 

May 27, 1901 — United States Supreme Court decides on Insular 
cases. 

June 7, 1901 — Governor Stone, of Pennsylvania, signs rapid tran- 
sit bills. 

June 7, 1901 — Carnegie offers $10,000,000 to Scotch Univ.< 1 

June II, 1901 — President McKiniey announces no third term. 

June 12, 1901 — Cuban Constitutional Convention accepts Piatt 
conditions. 16-11, four absent. 

June 21, 1901 — Civil government ordered in Philippines. 

June 21, 1901 — William H. Taft appointed first governor. 

June 22, 1901 — Chaffee appointed military governor. 



10 

July 4, 1901 — Taft inaugurated civil governor in Philippines. 

July 24, 1901 — Schley court of inquiry granted. 

July 25, 1901 — Free trade between United States and Porto Rico. 

July 26, 1901 — China to pay indemnity of 450,000,000 taels. 

August 20, 1901 — Alabama Constitution finished. 

August 20, 1901- — China receives final terms of powers. 

September 2, 1901 — Vice-President Roosevelt's Labor Day speech 
at Minneapolis. 

September 5, 1901 — President McKinley's address at Buffalo. 

September 6, 1901 — President McKinley assassinated. 

September 12, 1901 — Schley court sits. 

September 14, 1901 — President McKinley dies. 

September 15-19. 1901 — President McKinley's funeral services. 

September 20, 1901 — President Roosevelt's first cabinet meeting. 

September 24, 1901 — Czolgosz trial — sentenced 26; prison 27. 

October 2, 1901 — San Francisco strike settled. 

October 22, 1901. — Pan-American Conference meets at City of 
Mexico. 

October 24, 1901 — Illinois Supreme Court decides franchises sub- 
ject to taxation. 

November 7, 1901 — Alabama constitution ratified by 25,000 maj. 

November 7, 1901 — Closing argument in Schley case. 

November 13, 1901 — Northern Securities Company formed; cap- 
ital $400,000,000. 

November 18, 1901 — New Isthmian canal treaty signed. 

November 19, 1901 — National reciprocity contention meets at 
Washington. 

November 22. 1901 — Convention at San Francisco for Chinese 
exclusion. 

November 30, 1001 — Report of Isthmian canal commission goes to 
president. 

December 2, 1901 — Supreme Court gives decision on status of 
Philippines. 

December 2, 1901— South Carolina and West Indian exposition 
at Charleston opens gates. 

December 2, 1901 — Fifty-seventh congress holds first session. 

December 3, 1901 — President Roosevelt's first message. 

December 4, 1901 — Hay-Pauncefote treaty sent to Senate. 

December 9, 1901 — Shio subsidy bill reintroduced. 

December 10, 1901 — Carnegie offers $10,000,000 for national uni- 
versity. 

December 13, 1901 — Schlev Court of Inquiry reports. 

December 14, 1901 — Wireless telegraphy — Marconi. 

December 16, 1901 — Hay-Pauncefote treaty ratified; vote, 72-6. 

December 17, 1901 — Postmaster General Smith resigns; H. C. 
Payne his successor. 

December 18, 1901 — House passes Philippine tariff bill, 163-128. 

December 19, 1901 — Both houses adjourn for the holidays. 

December 31, 1901 — Cuban election. 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 

PRELIMINARY. — January i, 1900, found the Republican party 
in control of every department of government, and just beginning to 

shape its policy on the new questions which were rising into public at 
tention. A period of great general prosperity was destroying the mem- 
ory of the hard .times of 1893-1897, and the issues which those time- 
had made prominent were rapidly disappearing. With the advent of 
better times, following so closely upon the change in parties, there- 
began to appear among the people a disposition more favorable tow- 
ard the party in power in its treatment of the new problems arising 
from changed domestic and foreign conditions. With this general 
summary before us, we may now turn to consider briefly the more 
important questions of human interest that have come before the 
American people during the two years of our study. 

THE SHIP SUBSIDY BILL.— One of the first measures to 
come prominently before the people was that intended for the en- 
couragement of our merchant marine. American ships, which had in 
1800 carried 91 per cent, and as late as i860 at least 66 per cent of 
American foreign commerce, in 1898, carried less than 10 per cent of 
that trade. Several remedies had been already proposed, but in 1900 
attention became centered on a bill championed especially by Sena- 
tors Frye of Maine and Hanna of Ohio, providing for a bounty to 
American ship owners. As introduced it proposed that $9,000,000 
each year for 20 years should be paid to the builder.; and owners of 
American ships, the amount to be paid depending on the speed of the 
vessel, its carrying capacity, etc. The chief arguments for the bill 
are: that it is disgraceful for a great nation to have so few vessels to 
float its flag n the high seas; that it is wasteful, as we pay $150,000- 
000 or more annually to foreign countries for carrying our imports 
and exports; and that, owing to lesser cost in building vessels and 
lower wages for seamen in other countries, we cannot compete; 
hence the government must aid our merchantmen. The opponents 
of the measure reply that to tax the whole people to aid a few great 
firms, or at best a single industry — ship building — is unjust. Furth- 
er they urge that our ship-building supremacy ended only when iron 
and steel vessels replaced wooden ones, and now that we can make 
steel at less cost than other nations can, we may hope soon to re- 
gain our lost position without resorting to subsidy — a claim they be- 
lieve justified bv the fact that our shipyards now have more wor'k 
than they can do, some of it coming even from Europe itself. The 
measure was not pressed in 1900 for fear of its effect on the national 
election, as many western republicans, especially of the rank and file 
of the party, were either lukewarm for. or even adverse to, its pas- 
sage. After the election it was set aside because other measures were 
more pressing and its terms were not entirely satisfactory to all ele- 
ments of the party. Senator Frye has just introduced. December. 
1901, a new bill which it is claimed obviates the objection urged by 
western republicans against the former one, but as it has not yet been 
discussed, no predictions can be made in regard to its fate. 

THE ELECTION OF 1900.— A single question— the free coinage 
of silver— had dominated in the election of 1896. But since then new 
problems, arising largely from the Spanish-American and Filipino 



12 

wars, had thrust themselves upon the attention of the people. That 
Mr. McKinley and Mr. Bryan would again be the opposing candi- 
dates was early recognized, but whether the new o.' die old issues would 
be made prominent in the party platforms was less certain. The Re- 
publicans preferred to conduct the political contest on the old issues. 
± he Democrats tended to choose the new ones. The Republican 
party was more harmonious than for many years; although there 
was, in its membership, a strong anti-imperialistic sentiment which 
circumstances might develop into dangerous proportions. Yet when 
on June 19th, the convention met at Philadelphia there was no oppo- 
sition to Mr. McKinley, and no contest over the platform — a docu- 
ment which recounted the accomplishments of the party rather than 
formulated a program for positive action. For a moment the vice- 
presidency threatened this unity of action, as the leading men — Sec- 
retary Root, Senator Allison and Governor Roosevelt — had all em- 
phatically refused the use of their names. Two elements, however, 
entered to force Governor Roosevelt to reconsider: the first, the 
strong demand from the west for his nomination; the other, the 
pressure of the Pennsylvania and New York "political machines." 
The charge was made at the time that those who controlled the "ma- 
chines" wished to force him into the vice-presidency in order to get 
rid of him in New York politics. To accomplish this end they raised 
the cry that he would be a weak candidate for governor but a strong 
one for vice-president. His nomination was made unanimous en- 
thusiastically. 

The Populists held their convention May 9, at Sioux Falls, South 
Dakota, and nominated Mr. Bryan and Mr. Towne. The Populist 
party, essentially a radical party, leaning decidedly toward socialistic 
principles, emphasized in its platform the idea of increased functions 
of government, greater governmental control over the money of the 
country; and public ownership of railroads as the best means to con- 
trol corporations and trusts. It also approved bi-metallism, opposed 
so-called imperialism and militarism, stood for direct election of sen- 
ators by the people, and for labor as against capital. 

The Democratic convention met at Kansas City, July 4. The 
party had been divided in sentiment over the money question since 
1896, and possessed a conservative as well as a more radical wing or 
element. An effort made early in the spring to stampede the party 
to Commodore Dewey having failed, Mr. Bryan's nomination be- 
came a foregone conclusion. Two serious questions, however, re- 
mained; one relating to the platform, the other to the vice-presidency. 
One element of the party wished to ignore the money question, ex- 
cept in a rather meaningless generalization, thus placing the entire, 
emphasis on trusts and imperialism. But the bi-metallists, under the 
leadership of Mr. Bryan, demanded the re-affirmation of the "free sil- 
ver" plank of the platform of 1896. The conservative section of the 
party apparently yielded on this question, but would not consent to 
the nomination of Mr. Towne; so Mr. A. E. Stevenson, of Illinois, 
was made the party's candidate. Later Mr. Towne withdrew from 
the Populist ticket, and that party endorsed Mr. Stevenson. 

The campaign was marked by a better moral tone, but less en- 
thusiasm, than was manifested in 1896. The most prominent issues 
were the Philippine and Insular policy of the administration, the mili- 
tary and trust questions, and, to a less degree, the money issue. The 
outcome of the campaign was easily foreseen some weeks before the 
election, as it became evident that the conservative democrats who 
would vote for Mr. McKinley were much more numerous than the 
Anti-Imperial republicans who would come to Mr. Bryan's support. 
This fact, when coupled with some dissatisfaction on the part of the 



13 

populists — due to the rejection of Mr. Townc— and with the cry "let 
well enough alone," secured a great majority for Mr. McKinley. In 
a total vote of about 14.000,000, he received 7,217,000 votes and Mr. 
Bryan 6,357,000; while 207,000 votes were cast for the Prohibition 
ticket, 33,000 for the Social Labor, 50.000 for the Straight Populists, 
and 94,000 for the Social Democrats. The electoral vote for Mr. Mc- 
Kiniey was 292, and for Mr. Bryan, 155. 

THE NEGRO PROBLEM.— The fifteenth amendment conferred 
on the negroes the right to vote. For a few years after its passage 
(1870) the privilege was exercised but under the leadership of cor- 
rupt men it was abused. Then the whites of the south justified them- 
selves, on the ground of self-preservation, in driving the negroes from 
the polls. Later fraud was substituted for force. During the last few 
years the same result has been secured by the adoption ot new con- 
stitutions which limit the right to vote to those who can read or who 
have a stated amount of property. In some states, however, there 
exists both the so-called "grandfather" clause, and a provision which 
allows the judges of election to determine who can understand the con- 
stitution when read to them. In this way many ignorant^ whites con- 
tinue to possess the suffrage, while the negroes are denied it. Mis- 
sissippi and South Carolina limited the suffrage some years ago, but 
during the last two years conventions have been held in _N. Carolina, 
Alabama and Virginia, with the ..vowed intention of making constitu- 
tions that would disfranchise the larger, the ignorant, portion of the ne- 
groes. In Maryland, a ballot law was passed (iqoi) with the same 
general motive. ' The people of the north have seemed remarkably in- 
different about the matter. In part no doubt because they have come 
to believe that the people of each state must settle this question for 
themselves without interference from those who have less knowledge 
and are less directly concerned. It has also been suggested that since 
several million people in the Philippines are, by the consent, if not by 
the actual will, of the northern people, deprived of a voice in their 
own government, the North cannot consistently take notice of a sim- 
ilar condition in the South. The census returns (1900) show that the 
negroes increased, during the last ten years. 18 per cent, the whites 
21 "per cent, indicating that the negroes are becoming a gradually de- 
creasing factor in our political and social life. Yet the problem re- 
mains a dangerous one. Booker T. Washington. Mr. DuBois. and 
other negro leaders, are advising their people to become industrially 
necessary, and economically self-supporting, leaving the political 
problem to solve itself gradually as the intelligence of the Blacks in- 
creases. In the meantime these leaders and other friends_ of the ne- 
gro insist- that education, especially industrial education, is the final 
need of the colored people. 

TARIFF AND RECIPROCITY.— From 1893 until very recent- 
ly the tariff question has played a very small part in our political his- 
tory. Now, however, largely under the influence of the trust problem, 
it begins to come to the surface again. Opponents of protection urge 
that it aids combination and- makes it possible to raise prices, or at 
least to keep them from falling, thus injuring the consumer. Some 
have also pointed out that as American manufacturers can and do 
undersell their European competitors, protection, being unnecessary, 
ought to cease. The surprising part of the movement, however, is 
a ^rowing sentiment in the South in favor of the tariff, while the de- 
sire for orotection is decreasing in the North. Both President Mc- 
Kinley iii his last speech at Buffalo and President Roosevelt in his 
labor day address at Minneapolis urged a more liberal policy and 



14 

committed themselves to the support of reciprocity— an indirect 
method of attacking protection. Several reciprocity treaties are now 
pending in the Senate. Their fate will probably indicate that of pro- 
tection as well. 

CENSUS AND REAPPORTIONMENT.— The constitution re- 
quires that a census shall be taken every ten years, in order that 
representatives may be apportioned among the states in proportion 
to their population. Since 1850, in addition to numbering the peo- 
ple, statistics pertaining to agriculture, manufactures, wealth and 
social life have been gathered. The census returns of iooo show 76,- 
295,220 people in the United States (excluding our island possessions), 
of whom 33 per cent live in cities of over 8,000 population. Previous 
to i860 population doubled in about 25 years; at the resent rate of 
increase nearly 50 years will pass before the population will be twice 
what it is now. The three most populous states are New York, with 
7,268,009 people; Pennsylvania, with 6,301,365; and Illinois, with 4,- 
821,550. The three largest cities are in these states: New York, with 
3,437,202 inhabitants; Philadelphia, with 1,293,697; and Chicago, with 
1.698,575. There are in all 160 cities in the United States whose pop- 
ulation numbers over 25,000 each. 

In reapportioning the members of the House among the states 
two principal questions arose: (1) Shall the States that have disfran- 
chised part of their voters (see Negro Problem) have their represen- 
tation reduced proportionately; and (2) Shall the number of mem- 
bers of the Hous'e be changed? The decision was to increase the 
number of members in the House from 357 to 386. By this increase 
no state lost a member, while New York, Illinois and Texas gained 
three each; Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Minnesota, two each; and 
Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Louisiana, Mis- 
sissippi, Massachusetts, Missouri, North Carolina, North Dakota, 
Washington, West Virginia and Wisconsin, one each. The difficul- 
ties in finding an adequate answer to the first question were so great 
that no action was taken. However, within the last month (Decem- 
ber, 1901,) s veral bills have been introduced in congress whose 
object is to reduce the representation of those states that have adopt- 
ed educational or property qualifications for suffrage. 



INDUSTRIAL LIFE. 

MONEY PROBLEMS.— Having noticed a few of the most im- 
portant phases of the political, let us now turn for a brief study of the 
industrial, history of our period. As money is the basis of all modern 
industry, and much discussed, we will begin with it. A bill to establish 
the gold standard, introduced December 6, 1899, after discussion and 
amendment, became a law March 14, 1900. It provided that the pub- 
lic debt be paid in gold; that $150,000,000 in gold be kept in the treas- 
ury to preserve gold payments; that the public debt be refunded into 
50 year two per cent bonds, these bonds to be used by the national 
banks as a basis upon which to issue bank paper money. 

We should also notice the rapid increase in the volume of money 
in the United States. April 1, 1900, the treasurer estimated that 



there were in the United States 2,021,246,506 dollars, or $26.12 For 
each person; November 1, 1901, this amount had increased to 2,246,- 
500,542 dollars, or $28.72 per capita. 

The following table shows how rapidly the gold production <>t 
the world is increasing: 

1 896— $202,25 1 ,000. 1897— $238,8 1 2,000. 

1898— $287,428,000. 1899— $3 1 5..ooo,ooo. 

1900 — $307,000,000. (without South Africa.) 

These facts are not unlikely to produce great political and social 
changes in the not distant future. 

Other very important monetary topics will soon confront the 
American people. The question of retiring the "greenbacks" (na- 
tional paper money) and issuing bank money in its stead finds advo- 
cates. Others favor demonetizing silver, making gold the sole legal 
tender. Secretary Gage has just propounded his central bank theory. 
He would have the 4,000 or more banks, with their billion dollar cap- 
ital, confederate, forming a central bank of $50,000,000 capital, with 
the right to establish branches. This central bank would then be- 
come the depository of all United States funds. When this system 
was once established he would do away entirely with the Independent 
or Sub-Treasury system which has existed since 1846. In fact, the 
question is rapidly reducing itself to this: shall the United States or 
shall private corporations control the issue of the paper money of the 
nation, and handle its revenue? 

RAILROAD BUILDING AND CONSOLIDATION. — The 
years 1900 and 1901 have been' among the most prosperous of any in 
the history of the railroads of the country. They have added nearly 
10 000 miles of road in this period, having on July I, 1900, 193.345 miles, 
and a total trackage (including double tracks and sidings) of 258^000 
miles In June, 1900, the railroads employed 1,017,652 men, and had 
gross receipts from passengers and freight of $1,487,000,000; after 
deducting running expenses they had $557,000,000 left with which to 
pay interest, taxes, and dividends. These two years have been marked 
by very rapid and extensive consolidations by either purchase or the 
formation of new corporations. Six companies, on January 1, 1001, 
controlled 98,015 miles of road. These six companies were domi- 
nated by the Vanderbilt interest with 19,455 nlll es of road; the Penn- 
sylvania interest with 13772 miles; the Morgan roads with 11,735 
miles; the Morgan-Hill interests with 20,458 miles: the Harnman 
Syndicate with 18.800 miles; and the Goulds with 13795 miles. In all 
when thirteen other roads joined these six interests, 140,831 miles, 
or 7440 per cent of all the roads in the country were included. 

Rates for passenger service, for the year ending June 30, 1000. 
were just a trifle higher than during the preceding year, averaging 
just above two cents per mile; freight rates also were slightly high- 
er averaging 0.729 cents per ton per mile, as against 0.724 the year 
before Railroad stocks have advanced very rapidly during the lasl 
few years, and are now at nearly twice the price they were bringing 
five vears ago. During the struggle for the control of the Northern 
Pacific its stock sold for a part of one day at $1,000 for a share whose 
face value was only $100. 

The testimony gathered by the Inter-State < ommetrce ( omi 
sion proves that discriminations in rates in regard to both persons 
and places still continue: and testimony just taken (November, 1901J 
shows that through rates on wheat intended for exportation _ are 
much lower than advertised, thus violating the law. This commission 



16 

is very urgent in its demands that congress shall give it more power 
in order that it may control such actions. Since December I, 1901, 
the Northern Securities Company has been organized in New Jersey 
with a capital of $400,000,000 for the purpose, it is supposed, of com- 
bining the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific and the Burlington 
roads into one great whole. Governor Van Sant, of Minnesota, 
claims such a consolidation is contrary to public welfare and law and 
has invited the aid of State and United States law in an attempt to 
defeat the plan, having brought suit in the United States Supreme 
Court, as well as in the State court, to test the issues involved. 

TRUSTS AND CORPORATIONS.— The question of trusts 
had begun to attract attention before January 1, 1900, but the great 
interest in the subject has been aroused by the events that have taken 
place since that date. "Trusts," as the word is now used, are only 
gigantic corporations. They may be organized under the laws of any 
of the States, but can secure the best terms in New Jersey, conse- 
quently that state has become the home of nearly all the great com- 
binations formed during the last two years. Many great companies 
with large capitals were organized during the year 1899, an d early 
in 1900, but the era in which the most record-breaking corporations 
were chartered began in the fall of 1900. and has continued with little 
diminution. The United States Steel Company, with a capital of 
about $1,100,000,000, chartered February 25, 1901, leads all organi- 
zations in size. The Anthracite Coal Company, the various railroad 
combinations, the Sugar Trust, the Standard Oil Company, the 
Biscuit Trust, the Cotton Seed Oil Trust, comprise a very incomplete 
list of the great companies of this class, each so extensive that it 
practically has a monopoly of the trade or manufacture concerned. 
The total capitalization of the companies organized during the last 
two years amounts to several billion dollars, and plans are under way 
that will vastly increase this amount. Recent figures give the "in- 
dustrials" as capitalized at $6,500,000,000. 

Various views are held in regard to these great companies. One 
class of men, perhaps confined to those interested, consider the trust 
a public good, and believe they ought to be allowed to develop with- 
out restraint, claiming the tendency is not dangerous and that the 
result will be cheaper production, lower prices, better wages, and 
more stability. Another, and very large section of the people accept 
the trust as a permanent institution, but insist that it ought to be con- 
trolled by law. Men of this group ask that the affairs of these giant 
organizations be made public; that their annual reports, stating assets 
and debts, profits and losses, and rates of profit be published. Pres. 
Roosevelt in his recent message seems to commit himself to this 
theory. It is also urged that the inter-state commerce commission 
be given greater power over railroads in order that it may prevent, 
the destruction of competition and business rivalry. Still others would 
find a remedy in a lower tariff on trust-made articles, in order to in- 
crease competition and thus lessen the danger of excessive prices 
and unjust charges. A third section of the American people, believ- 
ing these trusts to be a menace to liberty and public welfare, are 
not for regulation, but for destruction. They hold that when compe- 
tition is destroyed, human nature constituted as it is, will be unable 
to resist the inducement to raise prices, lower wages, ignore the 
public welfare, buy legislators and destroy civic virtue; hence the 
only remedy is to destroy them altogether. The profits of some of 
tbese corporations seem to some to justify this view. The Standard 
Oil Company, capitalized at $110,000,000, is worth on the market about 



17 

$8oo,ooo,ooo, and the last year declared dividends to the amount of 
$47,800,000; and for the four preceding years its dividends had aver- 
aged over $32,000,000 per year. Various plans have been suggested 
to secure greater control over corporations. March 15, 1900, an 
amendment to the constitution was introduced in the House. Its 
intent was to give congress power to regulate and repress monop- 
olies, and to charter and dissolve combinations. As its terms were 
not satisfactory to two-thirds of the members, it failed. Both of the 
great_ political parties, in their platforms of 1900, pronounced against 
combinations in restaint of trade, the Democrats taking the more 
radical stand. To the minds of many people public ownership of the 
railroads, and perhaps even of other natural monopolies, begins to 
present itself as the true and only solution of this great question. 

PROSPERITY. — Periods of depression, prosperity, and specu- 
lation seem to follow each other at rather regular intervals. A se- 
vere depression extending all over the civilized world began in Aus- 
tralia and Argentine Confederation in 1890 and reached the United 
States in 1893. Recovery began in 1896 and by 1899 the nation had 
reached a very high plane of industrial activity, which still exists, as 
may be seen in the regular employment of nearly all who care to 
labor, in the rise of wages, and in the .enormous increase of exports. 
The resulting vast balance of trade tends to bring our bonds home 
from Europe, to entice some of its gold and silver to our shores, and 
lastly to change the money centre of the world from London to New 
York. A further illustration of the rapid increase of wealth is found 
in the large bank accumulations, in the loans made at New York to 
foreign nations, in the rapidly falling rate of interest, in the specula- 
tion in industrial stocks, and in the ledger of the United States, 
which shows the revenue of the government in excess of expenditures 
and increasing from month to month. 

INVASION OF THE WORLD'S MARKETS BY THE UNIT- 
ED STATES. — The industrial development of the United States dur- 
ing the last two years has produced a marked commotion through- 
out the world. A few statistics will indicate the reason. 

Total foreign trade 1900 $2,244,193,543 

1901 (est.) 2,400,000.1 I 

" exoorts 1900 1,394,479,214 

1901 (est.) 1,500,000,0 

Total exports of manufactured articles: 

United States 1860 840,000,000 

" " 1900 432,000,000 

Great Britain 1860 613,000,000 

" " 1900 036,000,000 

For many years European agriculturalists have felt the compe- 
tition of the American farmer, and in England, France and Germany 
especially, much has been written in regard to the decay of their 
farms, and the remedy. Now the manufacturers also begin to Pear 
that they are to be destroyed by the cheaper goods of the United 
States. Its people and workingmen are so intelligent, its manufac- 
turers so enterprising and ingenious in securing better machinery and 
cheaper methods, and its natural resources in iron, coal, lead, copper, 
and other raw materials so abundant, that it seems destined to lead 
the world in manufactures as well as in agriculture. Already the 
United States is selling locomotives in England, Russia and India; 
erecting iron bridges in Egypt, building war ships even in a few in- 



18 

stances for European nations. The export of manufactured goods 
has increased about $100,000,000 worth each year during the last two 

The effect of this sudden invasion of the foreign markets of the 
European nations, and even of their home markets, has carried dis- 
may; and dire predictions of lower waeres, hard times and revolutions 
have' been made. Various remedies have been proposed, the most 
common being high tariff duties on our products seeking their mar- 
kets. The formation of an European Union, somewhat like our own, 
has been suggested, but historic rivalries, differences in race, lan- 
guage and interests, will make this a difficult measure to realize. The 
future only can solve the problem. 

Already the future effect of these conditions on our own country 
begins to attract attention. Some hold that we cannot continue to 
sell more than we buy indefinitely; hence they urge that it is for our 
interest to lower duties, even going to the extent of free trade, if 
necessary, that prosperity may continue in the whole world, for these 
men believe that the greatest prosperity will come to us with the cor- 
responding highest prosperity among the nations that buy from us. 

STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS.— Labor, discontented with its 
share in the Letter times, strikes to force employers to grant better 
wages, or shorter hours, or some coveted privilege. Employers, dis- 
satisfied with the demands of labor, use the lockout to bring then- 
men to terms. Thus an industrial war has prevailed for much of the 
time during the last two years. Recognizing the evil results of such 
a condition, about the middle of December, 1901, representatives of 
labor and capital met at New York City, and attempted to formulate 
some plan by which the two interests might work in harmony in the 
future, or at least settle their disputes by peaceful rather than war- 
like methods. Provision was made for a committee of arbitration of 
eighteen men, six selected from corporation interests, six from 
among labor leaders, and six from disinterested citizens. The com- 
mittee chosen includes in the 1st class, Messrs. Hanna. Schwab Rocke- 
feller; in the second group. Mr. Gompers, Mr. Mitchell and Mr. Shaf- 
fer; while ex-President Cleveland, Bishop Potter, and Archbishop 
Ireland, have been named for the third section. The committee or- 
ganized with Senator Hanna as chairman, and Mr. Gompers as sec- 
retary. . . 

As examples of the conditions this commission hopes to avoid 
in the future we may cite the following cases: A lockout by the em- 
ployers of machinists and carpenters, at Chicago, ^ February, 1900; 
later a strike by the mechanics: the "strike" and "lockout" stopped 
nearly all building in Chicago for many months; about 75,000 men 
were unemployed, and building to the value of $100,000,000 remained 
incomplete. The matter was finally adjusted. February, 1001, when 
a day of eight hours with a Saturday half-holiday was agreed upon 
bv men and employers. The strike of the street car men in St. Louis, 
May 8 to August. 1900: riots and bloodshed; for weeks scarcely a 
car moved. The anthracite coal miners strike: threatened in March, 
in effect September 17. when over 100,000 men quit work: eight days 
later the matter was compromised, the men gaining the right to buy of 
other than "truck" (mine-owners') stores. The southwestern) teleg- 
raphers were "out." December 8, iqoo, to January, 1901. Six thous- 
and granite cutters quit work March 1, 1900. for an eight hour day. 
The teamsters and dock-workers of San Francisco struck, July 2T, 
iqoi, and for months business of many kinds was nearly at a stand- 
still A street car strike in Albany, May 6, 1001, resulted. in riots, and 



19 

the militia was called out before the trouble was adjusted. The strike 
which caused the greatest sensation, however, was that of the steel 
workers in the shops of the United States Steel Company. Thous- 
ands of men were called out by President Shaffer of the Union, main- 
ly to secure a recognition by the company of the right of its em- 
ployees to join labor unions, although other causes of complaint were 
announced. The trouble was compromised September 14, 1901, but in 
the main to the disadvantage of the laborers. It is difficult to draw 
any general conclusions, as to results; on the whole, wages have 
been increased and hours shortened, but the other demands of the 
laboring men have generally been successfully resisted. 

EXPOSITIONS— The Paris exposition. 1900, noted for its art and 
artistic display, was visited by many Americans. The Pan-American 
exposition, Buffalo, May 15 — November 2, 1901, was celebrated for 
its color scheme, its electrical display and the lessons it taught the 
world in regard to the future of electricity. The South Carolina In- 
ter-State and West Indian Exposition began December 2, 1901, and 
has to do primarily with southern interests. Already congress has 
appropriated $5,000,000 for the Exposition at St. Louis in 1903, to 
commemorate the purchase of the Louisiana territory. St. Louis, 
and the state of Missouri, have raised large sums also: hence the out- 
look for one of the greatest of the world's expositions is good. 

OKLAHOMA.— The opening of the "Cherokee strip" to home- 
stead in the summer of 1901 taught anew the lesson that free land in 
the United States is almost exhausted. Many applicants for each 
quarter section of land appeared. Choice by lot was finally resorted 
to, avoiding the rush and riot that would otherwise have prevailed. 
Towns of several thousands of people grew up in a month's time, and 
an uninhabited region became populous in a few weeks. The whole 
movement illustrates how different are the conditions of settlement 
now from those that prevailed a century or less ago. 

OIL-WELLS.— The California oil discoveries, and the Beaumont, 
Texas, "oil-spouters" promise to revolutionize many interests, and 
to change the direction of industrial development of the southwest. 
Railroads are already using oil as a fuel instead of coal. Perhaps the 
whole fuel problem may be simplified, and dependence for refined oil 
on the Standard Oil company broken; although it is yet too soon 
to foresee the final outcome. 



REFORM MOVEMENTS. 

DIRECT PRIMARIES.— This system which seeks to give every 
voter an equal voice in selecting candidates for office, and to protect 
him in this right by law, antagonizes the old convention system. Its 
friends claim that it is more democratic, that it will lessen corrup- 
tion and trading, and destroy the political machines which exist in 
so many places under the control of selfish and self-seeking bosses. 
In Wisconsin in 1000, the governor and legislature were elected 
pledged to this reform. The legislature, untrue to its pledge but 
anxious to appear to satisfy public sentiment, passed an act of little 



value, which Governor La Follette vetoed, appealing again to the 
people and the next legislature, who will doubtless sustain him. In 
Minnesota a law was first passed applying only to the city of Min- 
neapolis. Its success led the legislature of 1900 to extend its prin- 
ciples to the whole state. Other states, as Nebraska, Massachusetts, 
New York, Kentucky, etc., are moving in the same di ectiqn. Doubt- 
less within a few years every state will control the nomination of 
candidates — more important even than the election — by law in such 
a manner that the whole people will not merely ratify the choice of 
the few, but will actually determine who shall hold office. 

POPULAR ELECTION OF SENATORS.— Closely akin to the 
above movement comes another — the demand for the election of 
United States Senators by the direct vote of the people. The cor- 
rupt use of money by men who sought to buy their way into the 
Senate, in Delaware, in Montana, in Pennsylvania, and perhaps in 
other states has intensified this demand. Several times in recent 
years it has happened that one or more states would have only a 
single Senator, and at the present moment Delaware has no senators 
because a deadlock exists in the legislature. Also if Senators were 
elected directly by the people, state legislatures might be chosen on 
purely state issues. In order to secure this c' ange an amendment 
to the constitution must be made. The House has adopted the 
amendment, but the self-interest of senators causes them to refuse 
their assent, thus blocking all action to secure this reform. 

MUNICIPAL REFORM.— Three questions a.e prominent and 
have been much discussed, especially during the last two years: (1) 
Shall cities govern themselves, or shall they be governed largely by 
state legislatures; (2) Shall cities own and control their waterworks, 
lighting plants, etc., and (.3) shall they be governed honestly? The 
last must be settled first; for upon its answer hinges the decision in 
the other questions. Great gains have been made in the last two 
years in nearly every city. The election, November. 1901, of Mr. Seth 
Low as mayor of Greater New York marks an epoch. It means hon- 
esty and efficiency; it means that New York will be governed for the 
good of all, not for the interest of the few. Reform barely failed in 
Philadelphia, and succceeded in Toledo. Cleveland and Columbus, O., 
where reform mayors v ere elected. In these ci ies the election 
turned on the question of city ownership of water, gas and electrical 
p1ants,_ lower fares on street cars, and city government for the good 
of all its people. 

TEMPERANCE MOVEMENTS.— Three important movements 
pertaining to the liquor traffic have been much discussed during the 
last year or two. Mrs. Carrie Nation, claiming that she had done 
everything possible to prevent the illegal sale of liquor, led a crusade 
of physical force against the saloon, hoping in that way to arouse 
public sentiment to the enforcement of the law. Arrested for the de- 
struction of r>ropertv, she was freed only to renew her attack. Rear- 
rested, she wrote from her prison and continued the agitation. Peo- 
ple differ greatly in opinion regarding the effect cf her course. 

The apparent success in South Carolina of the dispensary system 
— the State itself selling by its officers all the liquor disposed of legal- 
ly in the state, same not to be drunk on the premises — has caused a 
widespread discussion of the system, and its adoption by the people 
of South Dakot ; although, as no appropriation was mad^. to put the 
law into operation, nothing so far has been done in that State. The 



_21_ 

Woman's Christian Tcmpcranc Union and its friends have also se- 
cured the passage of a law by congress abolishing the "canteen" (a 
l>lacc where liquors, refreshments and reading matter were kept) 
from all army "posts." Much discussion in regard to the workings 

of the law has taken place. Some condemn the law, claiming thai 
drunkenness has increased in the army; others deny this statement. 
The discussion continues with both army officers and civilians divided 
in regard to the wisdom of the policy. 



« 



EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 

TRAVELING LIBRARIES. — In various ways in recent years 
attempts have been made to widen the field of education. Public 
libraries have been established in towns and cities. Colleges and uni- 
versities have planned "extension courses," where lectures were given 
in town and village when asked for. The most recent and perhaps 
the most effective agency in carrying education to the people's door 
has been found in the traveling library. Books are arranged in sets 
of 25 to 50 volumes and sent to any place that will make provision for 
their care, to be kept a few weeks, then replaced by a new set. Laws 
for such libraries now exist in Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The 
Nebraska legislature of 1901 passed a law establishing traveling li- 
braries, and appropriating money to make a start. Miss Edna Bul- 
lock has been appointed librarian, and may be reached at Lincoln. 

ENDOWMENTS FOR LIBRARIES AND UNIVERSITIES.— 
Probably never in the history of the world have as large sums been 
given by private individuals to found and aid educational interests 
as during the last two years. Mr. Andrew Carnegie has given many 
millions of dollars to erect library buildings — the largest amount, $5,- 
200,000, going to New York Citv to construct branch library build- 
ings, scattered through various sections of the city. Besides his gift 
of $10,000,000 to Scotch universities, Mr. Carnegie has endowed a 
Polytechnic School at Pittsburg, and has just offered $10,000,000 to 
establish a graduate school or National University at Washington. 
Mrs. Stanford has increased the endowment of Stanford University 
to some $30,000:000, and Mr. Rockefeller has increased his gifts to 
Chicago University by several millions. Estimates have been made 
that over $100,000,000 were given to education during 1901, and per- 
haps half as much during' the preceding year. The effect of these 
gifts remains uncertain; if it results in establishing schools where 
free thought is hindered in the least, or if it causes the people to re- 
lax their own endeavors (even sacrifices, if necessary) and to rely on 
rich men to support higher education, the outcome may be harmful, 
rather than helpful. 

FREEDOM OF TEACHING.— The question of the right of 
teachers to express freely their views on controverted topics has se- 
cured thorough discussion during the last two years. The issue was 
precipitated at Stanford university, where several of its most distin- 
guished professors resigned because they felt that the right of free- 
dom of teaching was at stake in the enforced resignation of Professor 



22 



Ross.. While public sentiment was somewhat divided in regard to 
the merits in this particular case, it seems that the great majority of 
educated men everywhere felt that true education would be destroyed 
if teachers were forced to suppress their opinions, or to warp their 
conception of the truth in order to retain their places. The unselfish 
attitude of Professor Howard and those who acted with him has cer- 
tainly made the future freedom of teaching much more seem 



ire. 



A NATIONAL UNIVERSITY.— Washington suggested, Jeffer- 
son advocated, and J. Q. Adams revived, the idea of a National. Uni- 
versity to be located at the Capital. Discussed for over a century, 
its realization may now be at hand. Yet even now there is much dif- 
ference of opinion in regard to its nature. Some would make it only 
a larger and more richly endowed state university; others propose a 
school for graduates of State Universities and the various colleges; 
while still others would establish a school for research only. A com- 
mittee of the National Teachers' Association reported against the 
first plan; the other two ideas are still open to discussion. Mr. Car- 
negie's offer of $10,000,000 to endow a National University will prob- 
ably precipitate further discussion, and cause action along some line. 

PRESIDENT GILMAN— The retirement of Mr. Gilman, Febru- 
ary 22, iqoi, from the presidency of Johns Hopkins University, after 
25 years of servicce, calls to mind that graduate study in this coun- 
try reaches back little beyond 1876, when Johns Hopkins began its 
great work. President Gilman has now been placed at the head of 
the movement to found a National University, so perhaps his great 
organizing power may yet begin a greater work than the ( ne he has 
just passed on to his successor, Dr. Remsen. 



G, 



RELIGIOUS OUTLOOK. 

CHURCH MOVEMENTS.— The religious world also seems to 
have felt the quickening effects of the new century, and to have marked 
out for itself vast changes in the near future. In the Methodist church 
the rules which govern the length of pastoral service, and determine 
the right of women to vote in conference and assembly have been 
discussed and amended. The Presbyterian church, June 3, iqoi, ap- 
pointed a committee to draft a revised confession of faith to be sub- 
mitted to the assembly in 1902 for consideration. Meanwhile the 
Episcopal church discussed the question of its attitude toward the 
remarriage of divorced persons. All the religious bodies were deeply 
wrought up over foreign missions, especially those in China, so rude- 
lv disturbed by the Boxer uprising. A number of heresy trials have 
also taken place, the most noteworthy being those of Rev. Mr. Mc- 
Giffert and Professor Mivart. In general the cause of this apparent 
unrest finds its basis in the so-called higher criticism— an attempt to 
apply the ordinary rules of historical criticism to the Bible. 

MORAL UNREST.— This spirit of unrest has also manifested 
itself in many forms throughout the country. Hazing at West Point 
became so disgusting that an investigation was held, and strong 



23 

measures taken to bring it to a speedy end. Mob violence has ap- 
peared in all sections of the country, but especially in the south where 
burnings and ly,.chings of negroes have not been uncommon. A re- 
action seems to have begun, accompanied by a feeling that law must 
be permitted to take its regular course. Perhaps even the same rather 
lawless temper may account for the election of the confessed believer 
in polygamy, Mr. Roberts, of Utah, and the use of bribery in sena- 
torial elections. Yet it should be noted on the other hand that Mr. 
Roberts was refused his seat, Mr. Clark was unseated by the Senate, 
and Mr. Addicks, of Delaware, failed in his attempt to buy his way 
into the Senate. 



SCIENTIFIC RESEARCHES. 

SEEKING THE NORTH POLE.— Two American expeditions, 
one under the command of Mr. Peary, the other under the direction 
of Mr. Baldwin — the money furnished by Mr. Ziegler — have spent the 
last two years in the land of the midnight sun, seeking an opportunity 
to penetrate to the North Pole. In the summer of 1901, Mr. Peary 
succeeded in exploring the northern coast of Greenland, while Mr. 
Baldwin established his camps and made preparations for a dash to 
the North at the first favorable moment. Both are experienced in 
polar expeditions, and well equipped for their work. Each hopes 
that the summer of 1902 may reward him for his sacrifices by a sight 
of the North Pole. Questions of electrical phenomena, as well as 
of geography are to be solved by these explorations. 

SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES.— The greatest discoveries have 
been made in the field of electricity, and among the most noted may 
be named printing without ink — a discovery possibly destined to 
greatly modify that industry. We must also keep in mind the wireless 
telegraphy of Marconi, by which he has been able to signal across 
the Atlantic ocean. Multiplex telegraphy and the sending of pic- 
tures by telegraph indicate the new fields into which the electrician 
is moving. Long distance telephoning has been made a commercial 
success, and Edison's storage battery system may in time result in 
replacing steam with electricity on our railroads. Color photog- 
raphy also should be mentioned. 

SCIENCE AND DISEASE.— The relation of certain species of 
mosquito to malaria and yellow fever has been established. Pro- 
tection from its sting or bite, which may be secured by means of net- 
ting, or destruction of its larvae (young), which may be accomplished 
by pouring crude oetroleum over swamps and other of its breeding 
places, enables men to live in regions hitherto considered almost un- 
inhabitable. Great advancement has been made in our knowledge of 
consumption, and a great tuberculosis conference was held in Berlin 
in the summer of 1901. Sunlight, pure air and electricitv are held to 
be destructive to its germs. Its communicabilitv seems also to be 
established, hence isolation hospitals are needed to keep it from 
spreading. Just as this is written a claim comes from the University 
of Michigan that a remedy against typhoid fever has been discovered. 



24 

The new century is thus ushered in with the hope that some of the 
worst diseases may be, if not eliminated, at least greatly mitigated 
in their extent and severity. 



MILITARY AFFAIRS. 

THE ARMY. — December 3, 1900, a bill for reorganizing the army 
was introduced, and after a long and exciting debate became a law 
February 2, 1901. During the debate many amendments, relating to 
size of army, and its use in the Philippines, were introduced, but de- 
feated. The bill as passed provides for a regular army of 58,000, sub- 
ject to increase to 100,000 men, at the pleasure of the president. Two 
amendments of importance were adopted — the first prohibiting the 
"canteen;" and the second stating the terms the Cuban constitu- 
tional convention must adopt before the troops of the United States 
would be withdrawn. 

THE NAVY.— At the beginning of 1900 the United States had 
six battleships and two armored cruisers in commission. Since then 
several additional vessels have been launched, the Illinois, the Mis- 
souri and the Wisconsin. The average displacement oi the first eight: 
— the Kearsage, the Kentucky, the Indiana, the Iowa, the Massachu- 
setts, the Oregon, the New York and the Brooklyn — is 10,000 tons. 
The six now under way or completed — the Alabama, the Maine, the 
Illinois, the Missouri, the Ohio and the Wisconsin — average 12,000 
tons. The eleven contracted for as early as 1900 — the Pennsylvania, 
the New Jersey, the Georgia, the Virginia, the Rhode Island, the 
West Virginia, the Nebraska, the California, the Maryland, the Colo- 
rado, and the South Dakota — will average 14,000 tons, while con- 
tracts were let in 1901 for five more that will average 15,000 tons. 
These thirty great iron monsters — costing from $3,000,000 to $5,000,- 
000 each — will form the chief strength of the American navy. In ad- 
dition to these vessels, one monitor was launched, November 10, 1900, 
and three more are under construction. Secretary Long in his report 
of December 1901, recommends that congress appropriate $100,000,- 
000 more for the completion of our navy. It is urged against his sug- 
gestion that this means a tax of six dodars for each family in the 
United States — an amount that is both unwise and unnecessary. Sec- 
retary Long states in favor of his recommendation that our increas- 
ing importance as a nation justifies thj expenditure, and he also 
claims that it may save in war, or in preventing war, vastly more 
than it costs. He insists that our flag floating in every country and 
on every sea will increase our trade enough to justify the expense. 

THE SCHLEY COURT OF INQUIRY.— Mr. McClay, one of 
the historians of the American navy, in his third volume, which treated 
of the Spanish-American war, charged Admiral Schley with coward- 
ice and insubordination. Atter some little discussion, Admiral Schley 
asked that a court of inquiry be summoned to decide in regard to his 
guilt or innocence. Secretary Long granted the request July 24, 
1901, and on September 12, the court began its sessions. For many 
weeks the court was engaged in taking the testimony of officers and 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT. 



25 

engineers of the Santiago licet. November 7, the closing arguments 

were made. After some weeks spent in reviewing the evidence, the 
court handed down its decision, December 13, 1901, divided in opinion. 
Admirals Bcnhain and Ramsey found Admiral Schlev guilty of all 
the charges except cowardice, while Admiral Dewey dissented in part, 
praising Admiral Schley in general, giving him the credit of winning 
the great victory at Santiago. The Secretary of the Navy approved 
the findings of the majority of the court, held that Admiral Dewey's 
finding in regard to who was in command at the battle of Santiago 
was not before the court, dismissed Mr. McClay from his position 
in the naval service, and announced the whole matter closed. The peo- 
ple are yet discussing it. 

Ex-SECRETARY OF WAR ALGER.— During the summer of 
1901, Mr. Alger published a history of his administration of the war 
department, defending his managment and replying to the charges 
of loose methods, "spoiled meat," and inefficiency. The work adds 
much new material for a study of the Spanish-American war. 



NECROLOGY. 

JOHN SHERMAN, one of America's greatest financiers, rank- 
ing with Hamilton and Gallatin, died at Washington, October 22, 1900. 
Born in Ohio, in 1823, he entered into politics soon after reaching his 
majority, and passed the greater portion of his life in the public ser- 
vice. Elected to Congress in 1854, he soon became one of its most 
noted members, was a prominent candidate for speaker in 1859, and 
would have been chosen two years later, had not the choice of Chase 
as Secretary of the Treasury left a vacancy in the senate to which he 
was advanced. In 1877 he became Secretary of the Treasury under 
President Hayes, and through his efforts specie payments were re- 
sumed two years later. Again he returned to the senate, which posi- 
tion he resigned to enter President McKinley's cabinet as Secretary 
of State. His health failing he resigned a year later, 1808, to spend 
the rest of his days in dignified retirement, respected as one of Amer- 
ica's greatest and most honest statesmen. 

BENJAMIN HARRISON.— Ex-President Harrison was one of 
the few men who grew in public estimation after leaving the 
presidential chair. At the time of his death, his hold on the public 
was greater than at any previous moment in his career, although he 
was not in full harmony with the tendency of the times. As a lawyer, 
statesman and orator he took a high rank. Although not a popular 
man in the usual meaning of' the word, as he was almost cold in 
manner, he held the most important offices within the gift ol the peo- 
ple— those of senator and president. Born in 1833, graduating at nine- 
teen, he early entered upon the practice of the law which he laid aside 
to enter the army during the civil war, and, with reluctance, to serve 
as senator and president even. Resuming his law practice in 1893, at 
the close of his presidential term, he won honor as well as wealth in 
its pursuit. Defending Venezuela in its boundary dispute with Great 



26 

Britain, he was id the height of his fame when he died, March 13, 1901, 
at his Indianapolis home, at the age of 67. 

WILLIAM McKINLEY— No event in recent American history 
has caused such universal sorrow as the death of President McKinley. 
September 14, 1901. A man who had few or no personal enemies, and 
who was respected by his political opponents for his high character, 
pure morals, noble manhood, gentle and humane spirit, it seemed be- 
yond belief that any one could be found base enough to take his life. 
Yet at the moment he was extending a friendly 'greeting to the Amer- 
ican citizens who gathered to welcome him to Buffalo, an anarchist, 
whose name no one cares to remember, aimed not only at his, but at 
the nation's, heart as well. The sorrow of the American people over 
his death, was only equalled bv their horror at the deed. _ All stood 
appalled. In a land of freedom, self-government, and majority rule, 
there seemed no place for such an attack upon the "plain man's" 
friend, and the people's legal representative. Perhaps Mr. McKinley 
had at the moment of his death fewer enemies, and more devoted 
friends "than any other man who has ever been in American public 
life." As a voung man in Ohio, his personality began to show that gen- 
ial good nature, and thoughtfulness for others that marked so pre- 
eminently the closing days of his life. He entered the army a youth 
of eighteen, and at the age of twenty-one held a captain's commission. 
He was elected to Congress, term after term, from a district that had 
a normal democratic majority. Twice governor of the great state of 
Ohio, he then acquired the experience which helped to fit him for the 
duties of the presidency, to which he was twice chosen by large majori- 
ties. As a statesman he was cautious, conservative, and inclined to 
accept rather than lead public opinion. A strong protectionist, he yet 
advocated reciprocity, and advised widening the markets for our 
goods. "His management of our foreign relations had been so tactful 
and conservative as to inspire confidence throughout the world in the 
peaceful intentions and amicable spirit of the United States, and he 
had lived to see our relations with all sovereign nations, great and 
small, more entirely harmonious than they had ever been at any time 
in the history of the American government." But after all his devo- 
tion to his wife, his patience and thoughtful care for those around 
him, his simplicity and kindly forgiving spirit, mark the elements in 
his career that will be most important, and longest remembered ^ by 
the American nation. The last words, taken down at his bedside, 
breathe the spirit of the man. He said: "Good-bye all; good-bye. 
It is God's way. His will be done." 



* 



COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES. 

ALASKA.— In Alaska great excitement has prevailed over the 
development of the gold discoveries of 1897-99 at Nome. Thousands 
of people are now living in comfortable homes when only a few months 
ago nothing was visible but a frozen, ice-bound waste. What threat- 
ened for a time to become a rather serious conflict of jurisdiction 
between Canada and the United States was at least temporarily settled 
by an agreement, late in 1899, upon a provisional boundary line. But 
no adequate government has yet been established in Alaska by the 



27 

United States, and it is consequently a scone of much confusion and 
disorder. 

GUAM. — As one of the results of the Spanish-American war the 
United States came into possession of the island of Guam, situated in 
the far Pacific, with an area of about 150 square miles, and a popula- 
tion of about 9,000 persons. The people accepted American rule in a 
friendly spirit, and government began under favorable conditions. A 
system of public instruction was provided for in January, 1900, and 
a requirement made that every adult citizen learn to write his or her 
name by July I, 1900. Slavery, existing in the island at the time of 
its acquisition, was abolished February 22, 1900, by the first governor. 
Captain Leary. 

SAMOA. — The Samoan islands, situated about half way between 
Hawaii and Australia, had for several years been under the joint con- 
trol of Germany, England and the United States. This arrangement 
caused much international friction, which was ended by a treaty, 
signed December 2, 1899, and ratified January 16, 1900. providing for 
the division of the group between Germany and the United States, 
England withdrawing entirely from the islands. By this arrangement 
the United States acquires the island of Tutuila, with the harbor of 
Pago Pago, the best in the southern section of the Pacific ocean. 
The area of Tutuila is about 54 square miles, and its population ap- 
proximately 4,000. Its harbor is lar^e, land-locked, and situated in 
the main course of trade, and will be one of great advantage as a naval 
and coaling station. 

HAWAII. — The American flag was raised over Hawaii August 
12, 1898, but at the time our study begins no provision had yet been 
made for its permanent government. February 16, 1900, a bill was in- 
troduced into the House providing for its government, and three days 
later Senator Cullom, of Illinois, introduced a similar bill in the Sen- 
ate. The general purpose of both bills was to make Hawaii at once 
an organized territory, similar to New Mexico or Arizona, with 
powers of local self-government, and the privilege of sending a dele- 
gate to Conarress; the rights of citizenship and trade to be the same 
as those existing between the older states and territories. April 6. 
the House passed a substitute bill, prohibiting the immigration of 
Chinese from Hawaii into the United States, which was accepted by 
the Senate after a conference with the House, and signed by the 
president, Aoril 30. Sanford B. Dole, former president of Hawaii, 
was made its first, governor. Parties were soon formed, adopting the 
names alreadv in use in the United States. In the first election the 
democrats were victorious, their candidate for delegate to Congress, 
Robert Wilcox, securing a majority of 316. and the territorial legis- 
lature falling under their control. The legislature, on meeting, quar- 
reled with the governor, who adjourned it in anger. The reason as- 
signed for the ill-feeling, and for the democratic supremacy, was the 
corruption conn cted .vith the payment of losses incurred from the 
burning of the Chinese quarter of Honolulu in the work of eradicat- 
ing the bubonic plague. 

THE PHILIPPINES.— During the entire year 1900 the war in 
the Philippines continued, with the American troops gradually cap- 
turing the Filipino strongholds, thus forcing the natives into a guer- 
rilla warfare. By the slimmer of 1901 the insurrection was confined 
to small bands in rather isolated regions, and provision bean to he 
made for replacing military with civil government. The Taft com- 
mission report, submitted to congress January 25, 1901, announced 



that in many provinces civil government had been inaugurated, or con- 
ditions were favorable for so doing. June 21, 1901, civil government 
was instituted in the Philippines, and Judge W. H. Taft appointed as 
the first governor. His inaugural oath was taken July 4, and procla- 
mation was made that the military authority was to become subordi- 
nate to the civil, although the military governor was to retain author- 
ity in those districts where order had not been restored. Twenty- 
seven provinces were declared ready for civil government, while twen- 
ty-five others were to be left for a time under military control. June 
15 .a supreme court of seven members — four Americans and three 
Filipinos — was constituted. An attorney general, and other civil of- 
ficers, including departments of Commerce and Police, Justice and 
Finance, and Public Instruction were appointed. The public school 
system was placed under the control of Mr. F. W. Atkinson, who 
was empowered to employ teachers from the states and to organize 
the school system. About 1,000 teachers have gone to the Philippines 
to enter on this educational crusade. It is the intention, so said, to 
have English introduced to such an extent that public business may 
be conducted in that language by 1906. 

The United States supreme court decided in the "fourteen dia- 
mond ring cases," December 2. 1901. that after signing the treaty 
with Spain the territory therein acquired beloneed to the United 
States, and could therefore be no longer subject to the tariff restric- 
tions laid upon foreign countries; although it declared congress could 
by law fix such duties as it saw fit upon exports and imports between 
the United States and its dependencies. The House has sent to the 
Senate a bill imposing the Dingley duties on all imports from the Phil- 
ippines; and though the question has been made more or less a party 
issue, the recommendation of the Taft government that the duties be 
reduced 50 per cent may cause a change in the present party policy 
before the bill is finally made a law. In the meantime trade has been 
increasing and prosperity seems to be returning to certain portions 
of the islands. 

PORTO RICO. — The first Porto Rican question of importance 
in 1900 was the matter of revenue. The president's message hdd rec- 
ommended free trade with Porto Rico; but Congress, after a long and 
bitter debate, concluded to lay 15 per cent of the Dingley tariff duty 
upon all goods passing between Porto Rico and the United States. 
This duty was to end. however, by July 1, 1902, or as much sooner as 
the people of Porto Rico provided some other means of raising a 
domestic revenue. As such provision was soon made, free trade be- 
tween Porto Rico and the United States began July 25, tool The 
above act also provided for Porto Rico a form of government, con- 
sisting of a governor, appointed by the president for a term of four 
years; an executive council or cabinet of eleven members, appointed 
by the president and the senate, and constituting the upper house of 
the legislature; and a lower legislative house, elected by the people 
for a term of two years; all legislation to be subject to congres- 
sional annullment. This bill did not receive the full republican sup- 
port, but became a law by a vote of 161-153 in the House and 40-31 in 
the Senate. A public school system has been organized; and indus- 
trial recovery from the destructive hurricane of August, 1899, and 
from the changes incident to war. may be easily noted. Mr. C. PL 
Allen, the first governor, resigned September 3, 1890. Mr. W. H. 
Hunt assuming the duties of the office in his place. The area of 
Porto Rico is 3,600 square miles, and it has a population of 953,243. 



29 

CUBA.— -Affairs in Cuba have been, and still are, in rather an un- 
settled condition; yet measures looking to the organization of an 
independent republic arc slowly taking shape. September 15, 1900, 
the Cuban people elected a constitutional convention, in which the 
Nationalists (Pro-American) l.ad a majority. It organized Novem 
ber 5, and early in 1901, had formed a constitution very similar to 
our own. The principal question before the convention was the 
acceptance or rejection of the Piatt amendment which required the 
Cuban convention to incorporate stated provisions giving the Unit- 
ed States certain privileges in Cuba. At first the convention re- 
fused; but after a committee had visited Washington the demand 
was agreed to by a vote of 16 to u, with 4 absent. The struggle 
for president was becoming exciting, when one of them — Maso — 
withdrew on the ground that all election officials were controlled by 
his opponent. Thomaso Palma was elected December 31, 1901, by a 
majority much increased — and yet a light vote — through the non-at- 
tendance at the polls of many of his opponents. 

THE DANISH WEST INDIES.— A treaty has been signed by 
which the Danish West India islands, including St. Croix, St. Thom- 
as, St. John and some islets, are transferred to the United States 
for $4,500,000. But just at the moment of* writing much dissatisfac- 
tion over the proposed transfer seems to have arisen in Denmark; 
and some opposition in the islands themselves. What the final out- 
come will be must remain for the new year to decide, although there 
has been some talk of submitting the question of sale to a vote of 
the islanders themsel es. These islands, located just east of, Porto 
Rico, contain only some 138 square miles, wi'h a population of 
32,786; but as they lie in the direct line of trads, and as one of the 
best harbors in the Caribbean sea is found on St. Thomas, they be- 
come of considerable importance in commerce. 



FOREIGN RELATIONS. 

THE HAGUE CONFERENCE.— Called at the suggestion of 
the Czar of Russia the Hague Peace Conference recommended to the 
nations the establishment of a permanent arbitration tribunal to 
which they might bring their d'sputes for settlement. February 5, 
1900, the Senate unanimously approved the treaty which provides 
that the president shall appoint four distinguished citizens of the 
United States, who, when joined by representatives chosen by the 
other civilized nations of the world, shall constitute the arbitration 
tribunal. No cases, thus far have come before the tribunal for ar- 
bitration. 

THE BOER WAR. — On the whole the sympathy of the Amer- 
ican people has been with the Boeis in their struggle with Great 
Britain. Although the long established poncy of neutrality and non- 
intervention in foreign affairs has been adopted and followed by the 
government, there are many who would like to see the president of- 
fer his services to bring the war to an end. The large number of 



30 

deaths of children in the Boer concentration camps, during the last 
few months, has greatly intensified this feeling. 

THE CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY.— February 5, 1000, 
Secretary Hay and the British ambassador. Sir Julian Pauncefote, 
signed an agreement by which those provisions of the Clayton-Bul- 
wer treaty of 1850 which provided for the neutrality of any isthmian 
canal by the joint action of Great Britain and tl United States, were 
abrogated. The senate, however, before ratifying, added three im- 
portant amendments. The refusal of the British government to ac- 
cept the amendments necessitated the renewal of negotiations which, 
finally, December 4, 1901, led to a new agreement entirely abrogating 
the Clayton-Bulwer treaty. This action permits the United States to 
construct, own, and control the trans-isthmian canal, subject only 
to equal use by all nations. The sentiment of the country strongly 
favors the view that the United States itself — not private individuals 
— should own and construct the canal, and at present the Nicaragua 
route possesses the greater popular favor. A bih is now pending in 
congress which provides for its construction under the direction of 
the Secretary of War. 

THE MONROE DOCTRINE.— The United States has taken 
occasion on several occasions in recent years to renew its allegiance 
to the Monroe Doctrine, and President Roosevelt in his first mes- 
sage reasserted its binding force in strong terms. Its reaffirmation 
at this moment when we are entering more largely into the world's 
politics .brings some sharp criticisms from other nations, including 
the charge that we are not consistent; that we demand that other 
nations shall keep hands off this continent while we assert the right 
to interfere elsewhere. Yet both England and Germany have just 
practically admitted that it affords a rule of conduct to which they 
will conform. 

THE PAN-AMERICAN CONGRESS.— The Pan-American con- 
gress of 1889-90, held at Washington, under the guidance of Mr. 
Blaine failed to accomplish all that he hoped. The Congress, which 
met October 22, 1901, at the city of Mexico, assembles under favor- 
able circumstances. It aims to unite the Americas more closely, to 
remove obstructions to commerce, and cbove all to advance the 
principle of arbitration. The danger of failure on the last topic lies 
in two differences of opinion: shall arbitration be compulsory or vol- 
untary; shall it apply to existing or only to future disputes? The 
United States is ably represented, and plays no unimportant part in 
its deliberations. 

RELATIONS WITH TURKEY.— The delay in the payment of 
losses sustained by American citizens during the Armenian outrages 
led to some ill-feeling, but after a hint that force might be employed, 
settlement was made. For some weeks now the country has been ex- 
cited over the capture of Miss Stone, an American missionary, by 
Bulgarian brigands, who hold her for a ransom. 

CHINA. — The last two years have been years of the most intense 
excitement in our relations with the Orient. The Boxer uprising cost 
the lives of many American missionaries. The United States united 
with the nations of Europe, and Japan in sending i joint army to 
Peking to reneve the besieged ambassadors who, for many weeks, 
during the summer of 1900, were in the greatest danger. After the 
capture of the city, and the suppression of the. uprising, the United 



31 

States advocated moderate, rather than excessive, punishment of the 
leaders, and by its judicious course has gained greatly in Chinese es- 
teem. When the question of the partition of' the Empire was sug- 
gested, the United States opposed, and was largely instrumental in 
securing the "open door" policy (the same rates of dutv for all na- 
tions in Chinese commerce). On the whole the course of the United 
States, in opposing excessive punishments, and an exorbitant indem- 
nity — fixed at 450,000,000 taels — has produced a better feeling in China; 
whether the continued exclusion of Chinese laborers from our shores 
will counteract it only time can determine. 



Lll 



